Numerical and Experimental Evaluation of Pitting Corrosion of CUSTOM 450 Stainless Steel Alloy in Chloride Environment
Authors
Abstract
Corrosive factors along with mechanical loads on the gas turbine compressor blades, cause phenomena such as pitting corrosion, stress corrosion cracking and corrosion fatigue. Due to erosion of particles in the presence of a corrosive environment, pitting happens on the blade surfaces, which is a source of subsequent cracks. Therefore, it is necessary to get knowledge of its mechanism in order to prevent the phenomena as much as possible. The main purpose of this paper is to investigate the growth of pitting corrosion in CUSTOM 450 stainless steel and to obtain strain values in the growing pits at the maximum bending region. In this regard, a two-point bending specimen was made and subjected to a potentio-static test under the potential of 350 mVSCE in the 3.5 wt% sodium chloride solution. Then the propagated pits were numerically examined. By the digital image correlation method, the local strain was calculated in the pits and a relation was presented to obtain the maximum strain time. Therefore, growth direction of pitting corrosion could be estimated by having maximum strain region. Finally, by simulating the pitting corrosion process of a stress-free sample under the potential of 350 mVSCE in 3.5 wt% sodium chloride solution in COMSOL Multiphysics software, variations in the concentration of ions, electric potential, and corrosion current density were shown in the existing pit. The potential was decreased by moving in-depth and the maximum current density was found at the depth of 18 μm. Thus, without the need of advanced laboratory facilities for surface scanning and analysis, useful information from surface corrosion conditions could be obtained
Keywords
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2. Lorenz, W. J., and Mansfeld, F., “Determination of Corrosion Rates by Electrochemical DC and AC Methods”, Corrosion Science, Vol. 21, No. 9, pp. 647-672, 1981.
3. Chen, J. F., and Bogaerts, W. F., “The Physical Meaning of Noise Resistance”, Corrosion Science, Vol. 37, No. 11, pp. 1839-1842, 1995.
4. Frankel, G. S., “Electrochemical Techniques in Corrosion: Status, Limitations and Needs", Journal of Testing and Evaluation, Vol. 42, No. 3, pp. 517-538, 2014.
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7. Invernizzi, A. J., Sivieri, E., and Trasatti, S. P., “Corrosion Behaviour of Duplex Stainless Steels in Organic Acid Aqueous Solutions." Materials Science and Engineering: A, Vol. 485, No. 1, pp. 234-242, 2008.
8. Massoud, T., Maurice, V., Klein, L. H., and Marcus, P., “Nanoscale Morphology and Atomic Structure of Passive Films on Stainless Steel”, Journal of The Electrochemical Society, Vol. 160, No. 6, pp. 232, 2013.
9. Maurice, V., Yang, W. P., and Marcus, P., “X‐Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy and Scanning Tunneling Microscopy Study of Passive Films Formed on (100) Fe‐18Cr‐13Ni Single‐Crystal Surfaces." Journal of the Electrochemical Society, Vol. 145, No. 3, pp. 909, 1998.
10. Zuo, M. F., Chen, Y. L., Mi, Z. L., and Jiang, H. T., “Effects of Cr Content on Corrosion Behaviour and Corrosion Products of Spring Steels." Journal of Iron and Steel Research International, Vol. 26, No. 9, pp. 1000-1010, 2019.
11. Zhang, Z., Hu, Z. F., He, L., Zhang, X. B., Fang, X. X., Zhang, B. S., and Ba, Z. X., “Effects of Chloride on Electrochemical and Stress Corrosion Cracking Behavior of 9Cr Ferritic–Martensitic Steel”, Journal of Iron and Steel Research International, pp. 1-13, 2019.
12. Izquierdo, J., Eifert, A., Souto, R. M., and Kranz, C., “Simultaneous Pit Generation and Visualization of Pit Topography Using Combined Atomic Force–Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy”, Electrochemistry Communications, Vol. 51, pp. 15-18, 2015.
13. Izquierdo, J., Eifert, A., Kranz, C., and Souto, R. M., “In Situ Investigation of Copper Corrosion in Acidic Chloride Solution Using Atomic Force—Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy”, Electrochimica Acta, Vol. 247, pp. 588-599, 2017.
14. Izquierdo, J., Eifert, A., Kranz, C., and Souto, R. M., “In Situ Monitoring of Pit Nucleation and Growth at an Iron Passive Oxide Layer by Using Combined Atomic Force and Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy”, ChemElectroChem, Vol. 2, No. 11, pp. 1847-1856, 2015.
15. Wang, Y., and Cheng, G., “Quantitative Evaluation of Pit Sizes for High Strength Steel: Electrochemical Noise, 3-D measurement and image-Recognition-based Statistical Analysis”, Materials & Design", Vol. 94, pp. 176-185, 2016.
16. Orlikowski, J., Jazdzewska, A., Mazur, R., and Darowicki, K., “Determination of Pitting Corrosion Stage of Stainless Steel by Galvanodynamic Impedance Spectroscopy”, Electrochimica Acta, Vol. 253, pp. 403-412, 2017.
17. Lu, J. Z., Han, B., Cui, C. Y., Li, C. J., and Luo, K. Y., “Electrochemical and Pitting Corrosion Resistance of AISI 4145 steel subjected to massive laser Shock Peening Treatment with Different Coverage Layers”, Optics & Laser Technology, Vol. 88, pp. 250-262, 2017.
18. Zhang, J., Shi, X. H., & Soares, C. G., “Experimental Analysis of Residual Ultimate Strength of Stiffened Panels with Pitting Corrosion under Compression”, Engineering Structures, Vol. 152, pp. 70-86, 2017.
19. Mohammed, S., Hua, Y., Barker, R., and Neville, A., “Investigating Pitting in X65 Carbon Steel Using Potentiostatic Polarisation”, Applied Surface Science, Vol. 423, pp. 25-32, 2017.
20. Tian, H., Wang, X., Cui, Z., Lu, Q., Wang, L., Lei, L., Li, Y., and Zhang, D., “Electrochemical Corrosion, Hydrogen Permeation and Stress Corrosion Cracking Behavior of E690 Steel in Thiosulfate-Containing Artificial Seawater”, Corrosion Science, Vol. 144, pp. 145-162, 2018.
21. Asadi, Z. S., and Melchers, R. E., “Clustering of Corrosion Pit Depths for Buried Cast Iron Pipes”, Corrosion Science, Vol. 140, pp. 92-98, 2018.
22. Wenman, M. R., Trethewey, K. R., Jarman, S. E., and Chard-Tuckey, P. R., “A Finite-Element Computational Model of Chloride-Induced Transgranular Stress-Corrosion Cracking of Austenitic Stainless Steel”, Acta materialia, Vol. 56, No. 16, pp. 4125-4136, 2008.
23. Scheider, I., Pfuff, M., and Dietzel, W., “Simulation of Hydrogen Assisted Stress Corrosion Cracking Using the Cohesive Model”, Engineering Fracture Mechanics, Vol. 75, No. 15, pp. 4283-4291, 2008.
24. Huzni, S., Ridha, M., & Ariffin, A. K., “Stress Distribution Analysis on Four Types of Stress Corrosion Cracking Specimen”, Key Engineering Materials, Vol. 462, pp. 194-199, 2011.
25. Simonovski, I., and Cizelj, L., “Towards Modeling Intergranular Stress Corrosion Cracks on Grain Size Scales”, Nuclear Engineering and Design, Vo. 246, pp. 107-114, 2012.
26. Salleh, S., “Modelling Pitting Corrosion in Carbon Steel Materials”, Doctoral dissertation, The University of Manchester (United Kingdom), 2013.
27. Vijayaraghavan, V., Garg, A., Gao, L., and Vijayaraghavan, R., “Finite Element Based Physical Chemical Modeling of Corrosion in Magnesium Alloys”, Metals, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 83, 2017.
28. Pedram, O., and Poursaeidi, E., “Total Life Estimation of a Compressor Blade with Corrosion Pitting, SCC and Fatigue Cracking”, Journal of Failure Analysis and Prevention, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 423-434, 2018.
29. Pedram, O., and Poursaeidi, E., “Pitting Corrosion as the Main Cause of Crack Initiation in a Compressor Blade”, 3rd International Conference on Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Tehran, Imam Khomeini International University - Iranian Association of Thermal and Refrigeration Engineering, 2018.
30. Pedram, O., and Poursaeidi, E., “An Outrun Competition of Corrosion Fatigue and Stress Corrosion Cracking on Crack Initiation in a Compressor Blade”, International Journal of Engineering, Vol. 27, No. 5, pp. 785-792, 2014.
31. Mollapour, Y., Pedram, O., Poursaeidi, E., Khamedi, R., “Numerical Study of Pitting Corrosion CUSTOM 450 in Acetic Acid and Sodium Acetate Solution”, The 27th Annual International Conference of the Iranian Association of Mechanical Engineers, Tehran, Iranian Association of Mechanical Engineers, 2019 (in Persian).
32. Pedram, O., Mollapour, Y., Shayani-jam, H., Poursaeidi, E., and Khamedi, R., “Pitting Corrosion Behavior of CUSTOM 450 Stainless Steel Using Electrochemical Characterization”, Metals and Materials International, pp. 1-11, 2020.
33. ASTM G39, Standard Practice for Preparation and Use of Bent-Beam Stress-Corrosion Test Specimens.
34. Poursaiedi, E., and Salarvand, A., “Effect of Coating Surface Finishing on Fatigue Behavior of C450 Steel CAPVD Coated with (Ti, Cr) N”, Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, Vol. 25, No. 8, pp. 3448-3455, 2016.
35. Technical datasheet, CUSTOM 450 Stainless, CARPENTER, pp. 1-12, 2009.
36. Winter, D., Optische Verschiebungsmessung nach dem Objektrasterprinzip mit Hilfe eines flächenorientierten Ansatzes. na, 1993.
37. COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Guide V. 5.4, Editor. 2018.
38. Thulukkanam, K., Heat exchanger design handbook, CRC press, 2013.
39. Database llnl: Jim Johnson, “thermo.com.V8.R6.230” Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, in Geochemist’s Workbench format. Converted to PhreeqC format by Greg Anderson with help from David Parkhurst (llnl.dat 4023 2010-02-09 21:02:42Z dlpark)
40. Taylor, P., and Derrek G. Owen., Oxidation of magnetite in aerated aqueous media. No. AECL-10821. Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd., 1993.
41. Database minteq: J. D. Allison, D. S. Brown, K. J. Novo-Gradac: MINTEQA2/PRODEFA2, A Geochemical Assessment Model for Environmental Systems, Version 3.0, User’s Manual, EPA/600/3-91/021, March 1991.
42. Tang, A., and Sandall, O. C., “Diffusion Coefficient of Chlorine in Water at 25-60 degree. °C.” Journal of Chemical and Engineering Data, Vol. 30, No. 2, pp. 189-191, 1985.
43. Buffle, J., Zhang, Z., and Startchev, K., “Metal Flux and Dynamic Speciation at (bio) Interfaces. Part I: Critical Evaluation and Compilation of Physicochemical Parameters for complexes with Simple Ligands and Fulvic/Humic Substances”, Environmental Science & Technology, Vol. 41, No. 22, pp. 7609-7620, 2007.
44. Oltra, R., Louis, J., Vuillemin, V., and Cottis, R. A., “Use of a General Purpose Finite Element Package for Modeling of Crevice Corrosion”, In CORROSION 2004. NACE International, 2004.
45. Robie, R. A., Hemingway, B. S., and Fisher, J. R., “Thermodynamic Properties of Minerals and Related Substances at 298.15 K and 1 bar (105 Pascals) Pressure and at Higher Temperatures. US Geol”, Survery Bulletin, Vol. 2131, p, 461, 1995.
46. Maurice, V., Yang, W. P., and Marcus, P., “X‐Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy and Scanning Tunneling Microscopy Study of Passive Films Formed on (100) Fe‐18Cr‐13Ni Single‐Crystal Surfaces”, Journal of the Electrochemical Society, Vol. 145, No. 3, pp. 909, 1998.
47. Isaacs, H. S., Davenport, A. J., Jeong-Hwan, C., Rivers, M. L. and Sutton, S. R., “Application of in Situ Scanning x-ray Fluorescence to Study the Concentration of Metal Ions in Simulated Pits”, (No. BNL-48706; CONF-9309150-3). Brookhaven National Lab., Upton, NY (United States), 1993.
48. Sharland, S. M. and Tasker, P. W., “A Mathematical Model of Crevice and Pitting Corrosion-I. The Physical Model”, Corrosion Science, Vol. 28, No. 6, pp. 603-620, 1988.
49. Toney, M. F., Davenport, A. J., Oblonsky, L. J., Ryan, M. P. and Vitus, C. M., “Atomic Structure of the Passive Oxide Film Formed on Iron”, Physical Review Letters, Vol. 79, No. 21, pp. 4282, 1997.
50. Rayment, T., Davenport, A. J., Dent, A. J., Tinnes, J. P., Wiltshire, R. J., Martin, C., Clark, G., Quinn, P. and Mosselmans, J. F. W., “Characterisation of Salt Films on Dissolving Metal Surfaces in Artificial Corrosion Pits Via in Situ Synchrotron X-ray Diffraction”, Electrochemistry Communications, Vol. 10, No. 6, pp. 855-858, 2008.
51. Walton, J. C., “Mathematical Modeling of Mass Transport and Chemical Reaction in Crevice and Pitting Corrosion”, Corrosion Science, Vol. 30, No. 8-9, pp. 915-928, 1990
2. Lorenz, W. J., and Mansfeld, F., “Determination of Corrosion Rates by Electrochemical DC and AC Methods”, Corrosion Science, Vol. 21, No. 9, pp. 647-672, 1981.
3. Chen, J. F., and Bogaerts, W. F., “The Physical Meaning of Noise Resistance”, Corrosion Science, Vol. 37, No. 11, pp. 1839-1842, 1995.
4. Frankel, G. S., “Electrochemical Techniques in Corrosion: Status, Limitations and Needs", Journal of Testing and Evaluation, Vol. 42, No. 3, pp. 517-538, 2014.
5. Martins, M. and Casteletti, L. C., “Microstructural Characteristics and Corrosion Behavior of a Super Duplex Stainless Steel Casting”, Materials Characterization, Vol. 60, No. 2, pp. 150-155, 2009.
6. Boissy, C., Alemany-Dumont, C. and Normand, B., “EIS Evaluation of Steady-State Characteristic of 316L Stainless Steel Passive Film Grown in Acidic Solution”, Electrochemistry Communications, Vol. 26, pp. 10-12, 2013.
7. Invernizzi, A. J., Sivieri, E., and Trasatti, S. P., “Corrosion Behaviour of Duplex Stainless Steels in Organic Acid Aqueous Solutions." Materials Science and Engineering: A, Vol. 485, No. 1, pp. 234-242, 2008.
8. Massoud, T., Maurice, V., Klein, L. H., and Marcus, P., “Nanoscale Morphology and Atomic Structure of Passive Films on Stainless Steel”, Journal of The Electrochemical Society, Vol. 160, No. 6, pp. 232, 2013.
9. Maurice, V., Yang, W. P., and Marcus, P., “X‐Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy and Scanning Tunneling Microscopy Study of Passive Films Formed on (100) Fe‐18Cr‐13Ni Single‐Crystal Surfaces." Journal of the Electrochemical Society, Vol. 145, No. 3, pp. 909, 1998.
10. Zuo, M. F., Chen, Y. L., Mi, Z. L., and Jiang, H. T., “Effects of Cr Content on Corrosion Behaviour and Corrosion Products of Spring Steels." Journal of Iron and Steel Research International, Vol. 26, No. 9, pp. 1000-1010, 2019.
11. Zhang, Z., Hu, Z. F., He, L., Zhang, X. B., Fang, X. X., Zhang, B. S., and Ba, Z. X., “Effects of Chloride on Electrochemical and Stress Corrosion Cracking Behavior of 9Cr Ferritic–Martensitic Steel”, Journal of Iron and Steel Research International, pp. 1-13, 2019.
12. Izquierdo, J., Eifert, A., Souto, R. M., and Kranz, C., “Simultaneous Pit Generation and Visualization of Pit Topography Using Combined Atomic Force–Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy”, Electrochemistry Communications, Vol. 51, pp. 15-18, 2015.
13. Izquierdo, J., Eifert, A., Kranz, C., and Souto, R. M., “In Situ Investigation of Copper Corrosion in Acidic Chloride Solution Using Atomic Force—Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy”, Electrochimica Acta, Vol. 247, pp. 588-599, 2017.
14. Izquierdo, J., Eifert, A., Kranz, C., and Souto, R. M., “In Situ Monitoring of Pit Nucleation and Growth at an Iron Passive Oxide Layer by Using Combined Atomic Force and Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy”, ChemElectroChem, Vol. 2, No. 11, pp. 1847-1856, 2015.
15. Wang, Y., and Cheng, G., “Quantitative Evaluation of Pit Sizes for High Strength Steel: Electrochemical Noise, 3-D measurement and image-Recognition-based Statistical Analysis”, Materials & Design", Vol. 94, pp. 176-185, 2016.
16. Orlikowski, J., Jazdzewska, A., Mazur, R., and Darowicki, K., “Determination of Pitting Corrosion Stage of Stainless Steel by Galvanodynamic Impedance Spectroscopy”, Electrochimica Acta, Vol. 253, pp. 403-412, 2017.
17. Lu, J. Z., Han, B., Cui, C. Y., Li, C. J., and Luo, K. Y., “Electrochemical and Pitting Corrosion Resistance of AISI 4145 steel subjected to massive laser Shock Peening Treatment with Different Coverage Layers”, Optics & Laser Technology, Vol. 88, pp. 250-262, 2017.
18. Zhang, J., Shi, X. H., & Soares, C. G., “Experimental Analysis of Residual Ultimate Strength of Stiffened Panels with Pitting Corrosion under Compression”, Engineering Structures, Vol. 152, pp. 70-86, 2017.
19. Mohammed, S., Hua, Y., Barker, R., and Neville, A., “Investigating Pitting in X65 Carbon Steel Using Potentiostatic Polarisation”, Applied Surface Science, Vol. 423, pp. 25-32, 2017.
20. Tian, H., Wang, X., Cui, Z., Lu, Q., Wang, L., Lei, L., Li, Y., and Zhang, D., “Electrochemical Corrosion, Hydrogen Permeation and Stress Corrosion Cracking Behavior of E690 Steel in Thiosulfate-Containing Artificial Seawater”, Corrosion Science, Vol. 144, pp. 145-162, 2018.
21. Asadi, Z. S., and Melchers, R. E., “Clustering of Corrosion Pit Depths for Buried Cast Iron Pipes”, Corrosion Science, Vol. 140, pp. 92-98, 2018.
22. Wenman, M. R., Trethewey, K. R., Jarman, S. E., and Chard-Tuckey, P. R., “A Finite-Element Computational Model of Chloride-Induced Transgranular Stress-Corrosion Cracking of Austenitic Stainless Steel”, Acta materialia, Vol. 56, No. 16, pp. 4125-4136, 2008.
23. Scheider, I., Pfuff, M., and Dietzel, W., “Simulation of Hydrogen Assisted Stress Corrosion Cracking Using the Cohesive Model”, Engineering Fracture Mechanics, Vol. 75, No. 15, pp. 4283-4291, 2008.
24. Huzni, S., Ridha, M., & Ariffin, A. K., “Stress Distribution Analysis on Four Types of Stress Corrosion Cracking Specimen”, Key Engineering Materials, Vol. 462, pp. 194-199, 2011.
25. Simonovski, I., and Cizelj, L., “Towards Modeling Intergranular Stress Corrosion Cracks on Grain Size Scales”, Nuclear Engineering and Design, Vo. 246, pp. 107-114, 2012.
26. Salleh, S., “Modelling Pitting Corrosion in Carbon Steel Materials”, Doctoral dissertation, The University of Manchester (United Kingdom), 2013.
27. Vijayaraghavan, V., Garg, A., Gao, L., and Vijayaraghavan, R., “Finite Element Based Physical Chemical Modeling of Corrosion in Magnesium Alloys”, Metals, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 83, 2017.
28. Pedram, O., and Poursaeidi, E., “Total Life Estimation of a Compressor Blade with Corrosion Pitting, SCC and Fatigue Cracking”, Journal of Failure Analysis and Prevention, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 423-434, 2018.
29. Pedram, O., and Poursaeidi, E., “Pitting Corrosion as the Main Cause of Crack Initiation in a Compressor Blade”, 3rd International Conference on Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Tehran, Imam Khomeini International University - Iranian Association of Thermal and Refrigeration Engineering, 2018.
30. Pedram, O., and Poursaeidi, E., “An Outrun Competition of Corrosion Fatigue and Stress Corrosion Cracking on Crack Initiation in a Compressor Blade”, International Journal of Engineering, Vol. 27, No. 5, pp. 785-792, 2014.
31. Mollapour, Y., Pedram, O., Poursaeidi, E., Khamedi, R., “Numerical Study of Pitting Corrosion CUSTOM 450 in Acetic Acid and Sodium Acetate Solution”, The 27th Annual International Conference of the Iranian Association of Mechanical Engineers, Tehran, Iranian Association of Mechanical Engineers, 2019 (in Persian).
32. Pedram, O., Mollapour, Y., Shayani-jam, H., Poursaeidi, E., and Khamedi, R., “Pitting Corrosion Behavior of CUSTOM 450 Stainless Steel Using Electrochemical Characterization”, Metals and Materials International, pp. 1-11, 2020.
33. ASTM G39, Standard Practice for Preparation and Use of Bent-Beam Stress-Corrosion Test Specimens.
34. Poursaiedi, E., and Salarvand, A., “Effect of Coating Surface Finishing on Fatigue Behavior of C450 Steel CAPVD Coated with (Ti, Cr) N”, Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, Vol. 25, No. 8, pp. 3448-3455, 2016.
35. Technical datasheet, CUSTOM 450 Stainless, CARPENTER, pp. 1-12, 2009.
36. Winter, D., Optische Verschiebungsmessung nach dem Objektrasterprinzip mit Hilfe eines flächenorientierten Ansatzes. na, 1993.
37. COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Guide V. 5.4, Editor. 2018.
38. Thulukkanam, K., Heat exchanger design handbook, CRC press, 2013.
39. Database llnl: Jim Johnson, “thermo.com.V8.R6.230” Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, in Geochemist’s Workbench format. Converted to PhreeqC format by Greg Anderson with help from David Parkhurst (llnl.dat 4023 2010-02-09 21:02:42Z dlpark)
40. Taylor, P., and Derrek G. Owen., Oxidation of magnetite in aerated aqueous media. No. AECL-10821. Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd., 1993.
41. Database minteq: J. D. Allison, D. S. Brown, K. J. Novo-Gradac: MINTEQA2/PRODEFA2, A Geochemical Assessment Model for Environmental Systems, Version 3.0, User’s Manual, EPA/600/3-91/021, March 1991.
42. Tang, A., and Sandall, O. C., “Diffusion Coefficient of Chlorine in Water at 25-60 degree. °C.” Journal of Chemical and Engineering Data, Vol. 30, No. 2, pp. 189-191, 1985.
43. Buffle, J., Zhang, Z., and Startchev, K., “Metal Flux and Dynamic Speciation at (bio) Interfaces. Part I: Critical Evaluation and Compilation of Physicochemical Parameters for complexes with Simple Ligands and Fulvic/Humic Substances”, Environmental Science & Technology, Vol. 41, No. 22, pp. 7609-7620, 2007.
44. Oltra, R., Louis, J., Vuillemin, V., and Cottis, R. A., “Use of a General Purpose Finite Element Package for Modeling of Crevice Corrosion”, In CORROSION 2004. NACE International, 2004.
45. Robie, R. A., Hemingway, B. S., and Fisher, J. R., “Thermodynamic Properties of Minerals and Related Substances at 298.15 K and 1 bar (105 Pascals) Pressure and at Higher Temperatures. US Geol”, Survery Bulletin, Vol. 2131, p, 461, 1995.
46. Maurice, V., Yang, W. P., and Marcus, P., “X‐Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy and Scanning Tunneling Microscopy Study of Passive Films Formed on (100) Fe‐18Cr‐13Ni Single‐Crystal Surfaces”, Journal of the Electrochemical Society, Vol. 145, No. 3, pp. 909, 1998.
47. Isaacs, H. S., Davenport, A. J., Jeong-Hwan, C., Rivers, M. L. and Sutton, S. R., “Application of in Situ Scanning x-ray Fluorescence to Study the Concentration of Metal Ions in Simulated Pits”, (No. BNL-48706; CONF-9309150-3). Brookhaven National Lab., Upton, NY (United States), 1993.
48. Sharland, S. M. and Tasker, P. W., “A Mathematical Model of Crevice and Pitting Corrosion-I. The Physical Model”, Corrosion Science, Vol. 28, No. 6, pp. 603-620, 1988.
49. Toney, M. F., Davenport, A. J., Oblonsky, L. J., Ryan, M. P. and Vitus, C. M., “Atomic Structure of the Passive Oxide Film Formed on Iron”, Physical Review Letters, Vol. 79, No. 21, pp. 4282, 1997.
50. Rayment, T., Davenport, A. J., Dent, A. J., Tinnes, J. P., Wiltshire, R. J., Martin, C., Clark, G., Quinn, P. and Mosselmans, J. F. W., “Characterisation of Salt Films on Dissolving Metal Surfaces in Artificial Corrosion Pits Via in Situ Synchrotron X-ray Diffraction”, Electrochemistry Communications, Vol. 10, No. 6, pp. 855-858, 2008.
51. Walton, J. C., “Mathematical Modeling of Mass Transport and Chemical Reaction in Crevice and Pitting Corrosion”, Corrosion Science, Vol. 30, No. 8-9, pp. 915-928, 1990
)